Unit 5 Reflection

In this unit, we learned of how DNA is made of a nucleotide by matching the nitrogen bases(Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Thymine) together, walking the dogma, mutations, and how does a gene regulate.  DNA is a double helix structure that moves antiparallel in a 5' to 3' direction. It contains Adenine and Guanine as purines (double ringed), and Cytosine, Thymine as pyramidines (single ringed).  When walking the dogma, the DNA code is read and then unzips, with RNA polymearse matching with the RNA strands in order to produce mRNA. The mRNA then transfers from the nucleus into the cytoplasm where it begins transcription. The ribosome then reads the mRNA 3 letters at a time(codon) to make an amino acid- sequance with AUG as the "start" codon. As a result, this forms a primary structure of amino acids. Mutations can vary from no effect(point mutations) to having effect(frameshift mutations). As in the Protein Synthesis lab, deletion, a frameshift mutation, had the most effect on the amino acid sequence by deleting T early in the DNA sequence. In gene regulation, each gene operon like the Lac Operon contains a promoter with the RNA polymearse attaching it, and an operator with the repressor attaching it. Then it produces the Lac gene, with always DNA attaching it.

My strengths in the unit was learning the DNA's double helix structure, walking the dogma,  and mutations and my weakness is understanding gene regulation. I still might need to look more in walking the dogma, though because it has process that needs to be remembered to understand and the parts of the gene operon.

By learning from these experiences I learned to put more time of effort and focus in the vodcast that have more details in it and still focus on the vodcast that do not have a lot of detail. As learning in the Vark Questionare that I am a visual and word learner, I watched vodcasts of the ideas I am not clear about, and taking the CFU for the section, really help expand my understanding and that I need to keep it up and till the finals. I have no questions;I wonder how long the Biology final will take me; I am a better student than yesterday.

Protein Lab Conclusion & Analysis

1. In order to make a protein , you first start transcription in the DNA.  The enzyme copies the DNA sequence to produce mRNA, which eventually moves to the cytoplasm. Next, the mRNA bounds with a ribosome when it translates in the cytoplasm. The ribosome then reads each codon starting with AUG, and determines the amino acid corresponded to the sequence. After each amino acid is read by the mRNA, they bond together and fold up a primary structure, making protein.

2. The mutations with the greatest change in the DNA genetic code is deletion, then insertion, while the mutations with least change is substitution. By deleting underlined T, the amino- acid sequence changed by the 3rd Amino acid from the original Amino-acid sequence and never was similar to that sequence. Same as inserting a C inside the genetic code instead it started from the 5th amino acid, that was different from the original amino acid sequence. So it does matter where the mutation occur since if the letter T for C, it still did not change the amino- acid sequence until it really started inserting and deleting letters in the DNA sequence.

3. I chose deletion as my mutation because it had the greatest effect on the Amino- acid sequence. While the other mutations had the same amino- acid sequence until the 5th amino acid (Insertion), deletion started to change from the original amino acid sequence in the 3rd amino acid. It does matter of where the mutation occurs since it can possibly harm or give support in your DNA code. 

4. Knowing which mutations are harmful or not, helps us by knowing whether to raise more offspring with a mutation. Since there are a variety of mutations, it is not necessary are all harmful or good. A mutation that alter's a human's phenotype, is Progeria which is a mutation in the LMNA gene, which provides supports to cell's nucleus. It causes accelerated aging, along with baldness in body and growth impairment. These people mostly die in when they are 13 years old of heart stroke or attack with rarely some living to their 20s'.

Human DNA extraction lab

In this lab, we asked the question of how can DNA be seperated from cheek cells to study it? Our group found out that DNA was caused by how much saliva we had are from how hard we were rubbing our teeth against our cheek cells. By using saliva formed by our rubbing teeth mixed with gatorade, it percipitated and form our own DNA. We observed that all our own DNA became visible after adding alcohol into the mixture of gatorade, salt( enzyme), and soap detergent, along with our cheek cell's saliva. This is because of lysis since alcohol , along with the enzyme (salt), was able to breaks the cheek cell's semi-permeable membrane. The gatorade was insoluble since with its' many chemicals inside, but it was mainly that was alcohol and process of Protease that broken the proteins of the cheek's cell membrane to extract our DNA. This data supports our claim because chemicals like soap, gatorade, and alcohol can easily be broken from the cheek cell's saliva for people, including scientists to study it.
While our hypothesis was supported by the data we gathered from how DNA was separated from cheek cells, there could have been errors due to the how hard did the students rub their teeth against their cheek cell and how much soap, salt, and gatorade was poured in the small cup. The catabolic of the students' teeth rubbing against the cheek cell and how much drops of soap, pinches of salt, and gatorade poured could have affected when and how the DNA was extracted. For example, our group all saw our DNA extracted after putting all the other liquids once, but did not finish at the same time because of how hard we rubbed our teeth along size of cheek cell. One thing we could have changed was eliminating several materials such as soap detergent, and gatorade, leaving only salt and the catabolic of the cheek cell's saliva. That way, since they are constants of the lab, they won't change(basic as histones) as much and become nonpolar to each other, giving them to be extra careful in how much salt they put and the intensity of their catabolic of teeth rubbing against cheek cells.
This labs done to demonstrate of how chemical reactions can easily extract DNA. With gatorade, salt, and soap, composed with the cheek cell's saliva, it forms our DNA since saliva is where all our bacteria is. This lab helped me understand the concept that the DNA's double helix structure can be broken by any chemical reaction or mutation that changes the letter pairing for the DNA. Based on my experience from this lab, I could apply that to never swallow any chemicals since it can hurt your DNA system.

Unit 4 Reflection

Unit 4 Reflection

In Unit 4, we talked about why is sex so great, the reproduction and importance of chromosomes, the world of Genetics, and how they are passed on generation to generation, which also includes Punnett squares predicting that possibility. The theme of Unit 4 was Genetics and the essential understanding was eventually knowing why sex is great? This unit was very simple in the beginning when we were learning the Cell Cycle, Asexual and Sexual Reproductions, and MItosis and Meiosis. However, towards the end when we started learning the Genetic Complications which included Punnett Squares, and the different Genetic Crosses, it started to be hard to directly understand these concepts, making me having to spend more time on them. My strengths and successes in this Unit was being able to be familiar and understand all the concepts up to  learning the Genetic Crosses and Punnett squares, and being able to do well on my Genetic Infographic because I planned which info. are related together so they eventually answer why sex is so great? However, my weaknesses and my setbacks is understanding the Genetic Crosses and Punnett squares, including the Dihybrid cross which includes crosses with double homozygous or heterozygous alleles, and doing the last few experiments of the Coin Sex Lab which include doing a dihybrid cross. This shows I need to focus a little more on dihybrid cross which I did with several problems involving a dihybrid crosses and the other genetic crosses as well, my weakness. I learned if I had a weakness, then I would just do more problems on that weakness to make it into a strength, but also keep on working strengths. In the Infographic, I learned to organize the details and concepts to form the big picture: Why is Sex is so great? I am a better student to today by doing more problems on genetic crosses and I wonder the difficulty of the units after this leading up to the Semester final, and whether if I will do well on the final?

I am a mild auditory learner with a 7, read- write learner of 5, Kinesthetic and Visual learner of 2. This made me very surprised of myself because I actually focus more and have a better efficiency without any sound. I am more of a read-write learner where I look the text when reading and notes I take in studying for quizzes and test. In order to use auditory as my strength, I will listen to videos teaching the concepts needed for the test and then use the textbook to give me more details as well.

Coin Sex Lab Relate and Review

Coin Sex Lab

In the Coin Sex Lab, we identified the Genotypes and Phenotypes used to determine the different types of genetic cross in a Punnett Square, and then determine their Phenotypic and Genotypic ratio, using coins. The coins served as the different alleles as X and Y chromosomes used in the experiment in order to determine the possible genotypes for each trial to determine the genotypic ratio for the whole experiment. For example, if we were to determine whether the person was color blind, we put XB on one side of the coin and the Xb was on the other side of coin, and the other coin with XB and Y in both sides. The coins also helped us learn the law of gene segregation, by different gene pairs  (coins) having their own traits but when gametes or disorders form, then they seperate during meiosis or the genetic cross between the coins genotypes, forming new recombinations in the Punnett Square because the crosses.

For the dihybrid cross experiment, when I flipped the coins to see who was double homozogous child from two heterozygotes. I found out that 11 of the 16 children were but actually  when doing the cross it gives 12 children that are double homozogous. This shows that the predictability is actually 11 children out of 16 children but the probability is 12 out of 16 children. Since predictability doesn't give the accurate answer but probability does, it is for sure 12 children are double homozogous.

The limit of using probability offspring's traits is sometimes not knowing the genotypes of one of the parents have. When genotypic information is given for both parents,  Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses are used. For example, if it is a cross between the father that is color blind, because of X-linked inheritance and a mother that is not color blind, then we can use the Monohybrid Cross to predict whether the child is color-blind or not. However if it is a cross between a dad that has brown eyes and color blind, and a mom that has blue eyes and not color blind. then we would have to use a dihybrid cross to find out what color eyes the child has and whether he or she is color blind or not. So now that only one parent has genotypes, we need to use test cross to find the possibility of the offspring. For instance, the dad has hemophilia (XhY) but mom is unknown. Then, we do the test cross and get unknown mom also has hemophilia (XhXh). Then we can find possibility of whether the child will get hemophilia.

Understanding the importance and usage of the monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in different scenarios relate to my life when my genes are passed from generation to generation because of the chromosomes in the human body, which composes of 2 sex chromosomes X and Y, and the autosomes(44 Chromosomes). Some of these chromosomes can contain dominant or recessive alleles that have autosomal or Sex-linked inheritance. For example, disorder for Autosomal Dominance is Bipolar's disease,an Autosomal Recessive disorder like Albinism; Sex-linked dominant disorder like Coffin Lowry Syndrome and Sex-linked recessive disorder like Color blindness. These disorders, by doing any type of genetic cross, can predict the probability of having the disorders. With this knowledge, you can be more mentally prepared by already knowing which doctor the baby would go to for that disorder that the child genetically had from his or her parents. Or if it is not a syndrome on illness, it can be a bad syndrome on eyesight such as color-blindness. If you did not inherit it but your grandparents did, it is possible the child could have it, which will prepare you to give objects with the same color, so the baby does not get confused because the confusion could led to danger like not noticing difference between a real gun and black pen, and then killing his or her life. That eventually will not be good.

Genetic Inforgraphic: Why is Sex so great?

http://www.easel.ly/create/?id=https://s3.amazonaws.com/easel.ly/all_easels/1253350/1446219688&key=pri

Unit 3 Reflection

Unit 3 Reflection

Unit 3 was on the basic parts of a cells, and how photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration is occurred in the cell. The essential question of the Unit was what are cells, and what does photosynthesis and cellular respiration do to help the cell. I thought the beginning of the Unit was all review because the many parts of the Cell were review back in elementary school except the Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. However, now I know that Rough ER is close to the Nucleus while the Smooth ER is outside of the Nucleus next to Mitochondria. But in the end, when learning the processes of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration, it was hard to understand it because there were many details explained in each of the processes as we had never learned them before. In fact, I still have not really completely understand and memorized what happens in the processes involving Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration. So it takes more time to understand Photosynthesis and cellular respiration than identifying the basic cell.

We learned in this Unit of how “the Cell” is very important among living things including us, humans, by being able to let them function well. In Photosynthesis, Light Independent and Light-Dependent Reactions( Calvin Cycle) occur which in Light Independent reaction, high-energy electrons are being absorbed and transferred to the Electron transport chain, which then produces NADPH and ATP, electron carriers. Then, oxygen is released and Hydrogen Ions are transferred in the Thylakoid Membrane, and by using ATP synthases, for Hydrogen Ions to diffuse, producing ATP; in the Calvin Cycle, sugar is produced from Carbon Dioxide by using ATP and NADPH (light reactions), and is produced 1 glucose molecule every 6 turns in the Cycle. For Cellular Respiration Glycolysis produces Pyruvic Acid, 3-carbon atom, and uses 2 ATP and produces 4 ATP to the Krebs Cycle. Then in the Krebs Cycle, Pyruvic Acid and Acetyl- Coenzyme A produces Citric Acid, which is broken down to a 4-carbon molecule letting CO2 release, but gains more ATP that goes to the Electron Transport Chain. Then, in the ETC, high electrons are transferred in the Inner Membrane in order for ADP to produce ATP. Then in the end, ATP Synthases diffuses all molecules that transfer to the Inner Membrane to produce ATP. Altogether, Cellular Respiration produces 36 ATP in which Glycolysis produces 6 ATP and Krebs cycle and mainly Electron Transport Chain produces 30 ATP.  In the Cell, the many parts of it help it for living things to function, mainly in the Nucleus where DNA is made and the NUclear Envelope where ribosomes are produced

Overall, I learned how to study efficiently with so much detail mainly in Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis. I find which details are more important and study them more and unimportant subjects studying them less. I do not have any questions and I wonder if there is an easier way to study the many details in Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis. In order to get a great score on the test, I will continue studying each day on what I am weak on and then draw diagrams for Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration while quizzing what happens in each process in both Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration. Got to study more each day to get a better result.

Photsynthesis Virtual Lab conclusion

In this Photosynthesis Virtual Lab, the question is how does the temperature of the beaker , affect the rate of bubbling oxygen. If the temperature increases, then the rate of bubbling oxygen is faster since hot temperatures help speed up reactions. We found out actually that in the table as we reached 40 degrees Celsius, the rate of oxygen was 2 seconds/bubble, and when we decreased temperature to 25 degrees Celsius, the rate of oxygen was 4 seconds/bubble, and 10 degrees Celsius causes rate of oxygen was 6 seconds/bubble.

The independent variable of the lab was the temperature and dependent variable was the oxygen bubbles, since the temperature helps cause the rates of oxygen bubbling. The control of the experiment was the Light Intensity, because it was constant the whole time and helping the oxygen bubble because until it the stopwatch was at 7 minutes, no bubbles came out, along with carbon dioxide, by the same reason, too.

Overall, what I learned in this lab was how to create an own experiment by testing the variables, to find which  variable caused the change of rate of bubbling and Photosynthesis. By the rate of oxygen bubbling changing, it shows why Photosynthesis is changing since Photosynthesis produces oxygen. I found out that temperature with help of light intensity, were all needed to change the rate of bubbling. This help me relate to the concept of how photosynthesis can be a varying process like the oxygen bubbling in the experiment changing in its’ speed. It will help me apply to next time how to create a better own experiment since this is the 1st time in biology setting own variables to create an experiment.

Temperature (Celsius degrees)	Rate of Oxygen bubbles sec/bubble
40	2
25	4
10	6

Egg Diffusion Lab

Egg Diffusion Lab

1.As the sugar concentration increased the change in mass, and the circumference greatly improved. In the Deionized Water, the %change of Mass was greater than the % of Change in circumference with 3.06% greater than 0.05%, which would be the Solvent greater than the Solute greater, making it Hypertonic. This is because the water is diffusing from the outside of the cell(high concentration) to interior of the cell(low concentration). Same as the Sugar Water where the change in mass which was -52.9% is greater than -21.3 %, the water inside the container is having diffusion where it is moving from the high concentration(cup) to low concentration (outside of the cup).

2.A cell’s internal environment changes along with the external environment because the solute is greater on the outside of the cell membrane than in the membrane. In the Lab, as we put the Egg inside the water, the egg expanded bigger and bigger because of Osmosis ;when we put the Egg inside the vinegar, the egg’s shell came out and when the egg was in sugar it does not change because the sugar is the solute of the egg, that contains water. So with water, vinegar, and sugar as external conditions for the Egg cell, it does have significant changes of it.

3. This lab demonstrates about Hypotonic and Hypertonic changes in the cell along with passive diffusion among the cell.  Even though the Egg cell had mostly Hypertonic changes, it can be possible that it has Hypotonic changes. For example, if the lab eliminated sugar, then the Egg cell would be mostly water interior, which is greater inside the Egg cell than outside of the cell. Then, the Hypertonic changes would be the Egg cell right now where outside of the cell is greater than inside the cell. Also, since water can pass through the Egg Membrane by diffusing and that the Membrane is semipermeable, this leads to passive diffusion for water among the egg cell.

4. This lab can be applied in the real-life where now there is a reason that they put salt on roads during the winter seasons because to help decrease the temperature of the freezing, causing the water to diffuse from high concentration to low concentration. By the water mainly transferring out of the egg cell, the Egg diffusion lab taught how eggs and their shapes are made, which is by losing water by diffusion. So by learning this, we can apply to it of how fruits like apple and grapes are made at normal size, because of diffusion.

5. Based on the Egg Diffusion Lab, I would test whether if scrambled eggs or fried eggs can be diffused to be a normal egg again. If a boiled egg can be diffused as a normal egg, can the scrambled egg or fried egg be also diffused to a normal egg as a boiled egg could?

Egg Cell Membrane Lab and Conclusion

Egg Cell Macromolecule Lab Conclusion

In this lab we asked the question of can Macromolecules be identified in an egg cell? Our group found out that on in the Monosaccharide test only the Egg yolk had macromolecules with a quantitative amount of 7 out of 10. This supports our data, because monosaccharides gives excess energy for the Egg Yolk to function and develop.  In the Polysaccharide test all Negative Control, Egg Membrane , Egg Yolk, and Egg white had macromolecules inside, with macromolecule amounts of 10 out of 10, 8 out of 10, 7 out of 10, and 8 out of 10. The Egg Membrane contained the Polysaccharides,  because it helps the membrane function and is part of a membrane; Egg yolk and Egg white contains polysaccharides since, they both have food inside of them and polysaccharides help develop energy inside them. Next, the protein test had only Egg Yolk and Egg White, with macromolecule amounts of 8 out of 10, and 2 out of 10. This supports the data by the  Egg  Yolk and Egg White have food inside of them and so they are both proteins to help give us ATP to our bodies. Finally, the Lipid test has Egg Membrane, Egg Yolk, and Egg White, with 4 out of 10, 7 out of 10, and 10 out of 10. This supports our data, because Lipids are part of the Membrane, which makes it being able to develop the Egg Membrane; Lipids are in Egg Yolk and Egg white because since both of them contain foods,  the Lipid helps them give ATP that humans can break down to gain energy. So, the Egg Yolk contains, Monosaccharides, Polysaccharides, Protein, and LIpids, while the Egg Membrane contains Polysaccharides, and Lipids. Finally the Egg White contains Polysaccharides, Protein, and LIpids. This supports our claim, which is that Macromolecules can be found in the Egg Cell, since as shown that the Egg Membrane, Egg Yolk, and Egg White, contains several macromolecules, however with the Egg Yolk containing all the Macromolecules.

While our hypothesis was supported by data, there were possible errors due to that I might have measured the Negative control in the Polysaccharide test was wrong. The negative control is not suppose to have any amount of Macromolecule, but I measured that Negative Control had a 10 out of 10 macromolecule amount in the Polysaccharide test. Also, we had errors due to Monosaccharides having 0 out of 10 amount of Macromolecules for Egg Membrane and Egg White during the Monosaccharide test. It should have some amount of macromolecules since Egg Membrane and Egg White have food in them and Monosaccharides help along with Polysaccharides to store extra energy to give off as ATP to humans. Due to these problems, I recommend in the future that we should for each test take more time to see if results are accurate to the concepts we learned about it. Also, we should look over the data and repeat experimenting until we get accurate results.

In conclusion, this Lab was to demonstrate that parts of the Egg Membrane still contains Macromolecules like a regular Membrane. The parts of an Egg Membrane still contain, either Monosaccharides, Polysaccharides, Protein, or LIpids, especially the EGg Yolk which contains all of the Macromolecules according to our data. This help me relate the concept of what is inside the Membrane, and how does each part inside of the Membrane, help it function normally.  Based on the experience from the lab, I would apply this to looking parts of the Egg Cell Membrane is like any Cell Membrane, which in the lab data, contains all the Macromolecules that help our life easier. So now that I realize the importance of the Egg, it is important for myself and every other human to eat the egg because they give us the Macromolecules that are needed to survive everyday life.

20 Major Inquiries in Science

The major question in Science  that I am interested in is how did life begin? This question is very interesting to me because it actually gave me something that I never know which is simple chemicals made biology molecules which then caused evolution of humans. I thought at first, that we were simply just evolved from chimpanzees, but actually human were evolved from biological molecules. That is the reason why this year in Biology, it is important to know all the concepts because they help tell us how we existed on this Earth, which then allows us to be in different places around Earth and most importantly, being in school and the classrooms. The current hypothesis is if life started near hot pools and volcanoes because of the "primordial soup theory," then life may have started there.
My 20 Big Questions are:

1. How did food exist?
2. When will the Earth burn and crash down?
3. When is the universe going to crash?
4. Could anyone(humans and animals) on Earth teleport to another planet?
5. How do animals exist?
6. How did the human body exist?
7. How do humans are able to have consciousness?
8. Why could humans talk but, many animals, not?
9. How did shirts exist?
10. How did the solar system exist?
11. How did noodles exist?
12. How was cheese made?
13. Why do humans have nightmares?
14. What is inside a Frog?
15. How did "swear words" exist?
16. Will AIDS and HIV stop?
17. When will the world stop having violence?
18.  How do you determine which sugar is which?
19. When did "grades" exist?
20. Why is juice considered as an acid even though it contains Vitamin C?

Unit 2 Reflection

In Unit 2, we learned basic Chemistry and the particles of an atom: Nuetrons, Protons, and Electrons. The atoms are then combined to form molecules or bonds. This includes Covalent bond which shares electrons while Hydrogen bonds spreads electrons. Also we learned the 4 basic parts of living things Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic Acids, their functions and how they help our life. Carbohydrates store energy for producers and having rings of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, while Lipids also stores energy and are made of fatty acids. Proteins are made of amino acids, and are in all of our everyday foods we eat to help surrive, and Nucleic Acids carries genetic info., DNA and RNA, across our body so that our body is able to function normally. Finally, Enzymes are catalysts that give complex reactions on our life. With activation energy on Enzymes, the reaction is slower whereas without the activation energy on Enzymes, the reaction is faster.  We found out that the substrate of an enzyme is where the enzyme reacts. In the Cheese Lab, the substrate was the dried milk and the enzyme was the curdling agent for making cheese which was either, Chymosin, or Renin. I found out that I am very familiar with Carbohydartes, Proteins, LIpids, and Amino Acids, but I have to understand the parts of an Enzyme and the kinds of bonds.

Cheese Lab Analysis and Conlusion

Jonathan Li 9/18/15

Period 4

Cheese Lab Conclusion

In the Cheese lab, we asked a question that what are the optimal conditions and curdling agents for cheese? Our whole class found out that Chymosin, Renin, or Buttermilk mixed with Acid and Base, and Chymosin and Renin mixed with hot water bath, is the curdling agent and condition of making cheese. By requiring only 5 minutes of making cheese, having Chymosin, Renin, or Buttermilk mixed with acid, is the most efficient way of making cheese. Then,  Chymosin mixing with base,  takes 15 minutes and with renim and buttermilk, mixed with base takes 10 minutes to make cheese. Finally, Chymosin  in the hot water bath, takes 20 minutes which is the 2nd longest time between curdling agent and optimal conditions, and the longest time which is renin in hot water bath takes 33 minutes. This data supports our claim because they all eventually make cheese.

Our data was unexpected, however, because the temperature of the hot water bath was actually colder than what the normal temperature was to be. This cause chymosin and renin in the hot water bath to have a longer time than usual with 20, and 33 minutes. In the future, I recommend that check to see if the  water bath would be at its’ normal temperature. That way, we can prevent from having any invalid  or inaccurate data.

The cheese lab was meant to demonstrate that as activation energy lowers, the process of making cheese speeds up. For example, when chymosin, renin, and buttermilk is mixed with the acids, with enzymes, the time of making cheese is faster. Having activation energy in the hot water bathes, as shown, made making cheese longer. From this lab, I learned that whenever objects have activation energy, the reaction slows down whereas enzymes having no activation energy , the reaction speeds up, which helps me understand how activation energy affects the rate of reaction. Based on my experience from this lab, I learned that cheese can be made in many different ways with curdling agents and optimal conditions, and that it cannot be made fresh unless at room temperature.  

Curdling table	Chymosin	Renin	Buttermilk	milk(control)
Acid	5	5	5	20
Base	15	10	10
Cold
Hot	20	33
Average of controls	13	15

Sweetness Lab Conclusion & Analasys

In the Sweetness lab, we asked a question of how does the structure of carbohydrates affect its' sweetness. My partner and I found out that monosachrides had the highest degree of sweetness, disachrides the 2nd highest sweetness, then the polysachride with the lowest sweetness. For example, Fructose which is a monosaccharide, has a sweetness of 110 out of 200, while Lactose a saccharide has degree of sweetness of 90 out of 100. Finally, Cellulose, a polysaccharide had a sweetness of 85 out of 200. This data supports that the simple the structure it is the sweeter it is, which allow more organisms use simple structures of carbohydrates as often.

While our hypothesis was supported by our data, there were errors due to the fact that we have different taste buds than everyone else. Polysaccharides are the sweetest with composed of more rings, but by tasting it, it was not the sweetest carbohydrate. Same thing that Monosaccharides are the unsweetest with composed of the fewest rings, but by tasting it, it was the sweetest carbohydrate.

This lab was done to demonstrate that the simple the structure of carbohydrates are, the sweeter it can be. By tasting all the sugar with my taste buds, I can tell that Fructose is the most sweetest. According to howstuffworks.com,every taste bud in the tongue contains bascal,which is near the nucleictide where the DNA and RNA are established, and along with supporting cells that maintain 50 gustatory receptor cells. This is how some people have different tastes because what is in the cells for each tongue. So the taster would have a different degree of sweetness for each carbohydrate because the bascal, contains nucleotides which include DNA and RNA, that varies among each individual.

Carbohydrate	Type of Carbohydrate	Degree of Sweetness
Sucrose	Disaccharide	100
Glucose	Monosaccharide	95
Fructose	Monosaccharide	110
Galactose	Monosaccharide	85
Maltose	Disaccharide	90
Lactose	Disaccharide	90
Starch	Polysaccharide	90
Cellulose	Polysaccharide	85